Research Methods for Criminology and Criminal Justice

Chapter 1 – The Scientific Method and Criminology and Criminal Justice as Social Sciences

Learning to Become a Researcher

Circumscribing Criminology and Criminal Justice

Circumscribing the Social Sciences

The Near Social Sciences

Other Disciplines that Utilize Social Science Research Methods

Two Special Disciplines Linked to Social Science

Features of the Scientific Method

The Scientific Spirit

Types of Issues Addressed by Social Scientists

Summary

Chapter 2 – Formulating Scientific Questions and Locating Background Research

The Nature of Scientific Variables

Conceptual Versus Operational Definitions of Variables

Levels of Measurement

Formulating and Refining Scientific Questions

Locating Information on Topics of Interest

Distinctiveness of Scientific Communication

How Scientific Research Gets Reviewed and Sometimes Published

Summary

Chapter 3 – Ethical Issues in the Social Sciences

Responsibilities to Participants of Research

Deceiving or Causing Harm to Human Participants

Obtaining Institutional Approval for Conducting Research

Responsibilities to Fellow Social and Behavioral Scientists

Ethics in Criminology and Criminal Justice Research

Responsibilities to Humanity

Summary

Chapter 4 – Theories, Models, Hypotheses, and Empirical Reality

The Concept of Causation

The Nature of Scientific Theorizing

Assessing the Merit of a Theory

The Role of Theory in the Research Process

Scientific Models, Laws, and Paradigms

Hypothesis Testing and Attempts to Generalize

The Null Hypothesis and Type I and Type II Errors

Summary

Chapter 5 – The Concepts of Reliability, Validity, and Precision in Measurement

Using the Concept of Correlation to Discuss Measurement Accuracy

Three Elements of Accurate Measurement

Reliability

Validity

Precision

Using Factor Analysis to Refine Measurement Accuracy

Some Closing Remarks about Reliability, Validity, and Precision

Summary

Chapter 6 – Surveying and Sampling

The Nature of Scientific Surveys

Basic Terminology

Representative Versus Non-representative Samples

Probability Versus Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Sample Size

Surveying Over Time

Serving as a Respondent to a Research Questionnaires

Assessing Sample Attrition, its Extent and Causes

Computer-Assisted Interviewing

Limiting Sample Attrition

Inaccuracies in Self-Reports

Techniques for Minimizing and Detecting Dishonesty

Summary

Chapter 7 – Measuring Crime and Criminality

Measuring Crime and Criminal Behavior

The Uniform Crime Reports: Counting Crime Officially

NIBRS: The “New and Improved” UCR

Crime Victimization Survey Data

Self-Reported Crime Surveys

Measuring Criminal Propensity: Moving from Crime to Criminality

Summary

Chapter 8 – Controlled Experimentation

Basic Experimental Terminology

Main Types of Experimental Designs

Pitfalls with Human Experimentation

Shortcomings of Experimental Research

Summary

Chapter 9 – Quasi-Experimentation

Quasi-Experiments Compared to Controlled Experiments

Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Narrower Sense

Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Broader Sense

Quasi-Experimental Designs for Addressing Nature-Nurture Issues

Summary

Chapter 10 – Data Based on Self-Reports: Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaires

Basic Terminology

Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Based on Self-Reports

Response Options for Questions

Deciding Which Response Options to Use

Types of Self-Reported Items

Guidelines for Item Construction

Types of Questions to Avoid

Combining Two or More Items to Improve Reliability

Time Diaries: A Special Type of Questionnaire

Computerized Questionnaires and Use of the Internet

Final Comments on Questionnaire Data

Summary

Chapter 11 – Direct Observations: Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Qualitative Direct Observations

Participant Observations

Ethnographic Observations

Case Studies

Focus Group Research

Archaeological Data

Procedures in Ethnographic/Participant Observation Data Collection

Quantitative Direct Observations

Laboratory/Clinical Observations

Field Research

Direct Observations among Non-Human Animals

Content Analysis

Closing Comments on Direct Observation

Summary

Chapter 12 – Archival Data Analysis, Meta-Analysis, and Evaluation Research

Units of Analysis

Archival Data

Analyzing Cross-Cultural Atlases

Review Articles and Meta-Analyses

Conceptualizing Evaluation Research

Process and Impact Evaluation Research

History of Evaluation Research

Locating Reports of Evaluation Research

Program Evaluation: Doing it Right

Summary

Chapter 13 – Univariate Statistics and the Concept of Statistical Significance

The Nature of Univariate Statistical Concepts

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Dispersion

Illustrating the Concepts of Averages and Dispersions

Building the Concept of Statistical Significance

Hypothesis Testing and the Concept of the Null Hypothesis

Inferential Statistics

Closing Remarks About Statistical Significance and Inferential Statistics

Summary

Chapter 14 – Bi/Multivariate Statistics: The Concept of Correlation

Background for Bivariate Statistics

Constructing Scattergrams

Curvilenear Versus Linear Correlations

Interpreting Statements about the Strength of Correlations

Variability and Correlations

The Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients

Interpreting Two Studies Based on Correlation

Reflections on the Importance of Statistics in the Research Process

Multivariate Statistics: When Bivariate Statistics Are Not Enough

Closing Comments on Multivariate Statistics Summary